Management

Accountability	This is the ultimate responsibility which managers cannot delegate. While managers may delegate authority, they remain accountable for the decisions and actions of their subordinates.
Attitudes	Attitudes can be defined as providing a state of ‘readiness’ or tendency to respond in a particular way. They are learned through life and are embodied within our socialisation process.
Brainstorming	Where a group adopts a ‘freewheeling’ attitude aimed at generating as many ideas as possible. The focus is on freedom of expression and the quantity of ideas rather than quality.
Classical conditioning	A theory on learning developed by Pavlov, using dogs, who found that instinctive reflexes could be ‘conditioned’ to respond to a new situation and new stimulus.
Chain of command	The number of different levels in the structure of the organisation, the chain of hierarchical command.
Bureaucracy	A form of structure found in many large-scale organisations. Bureaucracy is based on specialisation of tasks, hierarchy of authority and decision-making, systems of rules and regulations and an impersonal orientation from officials.
Contingency approach	An extension of the systems approach to management that implies that the structure of an organisation and its success are dependent upon the nature of tasks which are undertaken and the nature of environmental influences. There is, therefore, no one best way to structure or manage organisations, rather it must be dependent upon the contingencies of the situation.
Delegation	The process of entrusting authority and responsibility to others throughout the various levels of the organisation, and the creation of a special manager–subordinate relationship.
Control	Within an organisation control is primarily a process for motivating and inspiring people to perform organisational activities and monitoring those activities to ensure that they will further the organisation’s goals.
Empowerment	Where employees are allowed greater freedom, autonomy and self-control over their work, and the responsibility for decision-making.
Formal group	Formal groups are created to achieve specific organisational objectives and are concerned with the co-ordination of work activities. Group members have defined roles and the nature of tasks to be undertaken is a predominant feature of the group.
Job desig	Concerned with the relationship between workers and the nature and content of jobs, and their task functions.
Learning organisation	An organisation that encourages and facilitates the learning and development of people at all levels of the organisation, values the learning and simultaneously transforms itself.
Motivation	The driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation.
Norming	The third stage of group development during which members of the group establish guidelines and standards and develop their own norms of acceptable behaviour.
Objectives	Objectives set out the specific goals of the organisation, the aims to be achieved and the desired end results.
Personality	An individual’s unique set of characteristics and tendencies which shape a sense of self, and what that person does and the behaviour they exhibit.
Power	The level of control or influence a person holds over the behaviour of others with or without their consent.
Span of control	The number of subordinates who report directly to a given manager or supervisor.
Stereotyping	The tendency to ascribe positive or negative characteristics to a person on the basis of a general categorisation and perceived similarities. It occurs when an individual is judged on the basis of the group to which it is perceived that person belongs.
Stress	A source of tension and frustration which tends to arise when an individual feels that a certain situation should not exist.
Theory X	A theory towards human nature and behaviour at work that assumes that most people are lazy, have an inherent dislike of work and must be coerced, controlled and directed through a central system of organisation and the exercise of authority. Motivation occurs only at the lower level needs.
Total Quality Management (TQM)	An approach to quality within an organisation which is committed to total customer satisfaction through a continuous process of improvement, and the contribution and involvement of people.
Task culture	A form of culture which is task or job oriented and seeks to bring together the right resources and people and utilises the unifying power of the group.
Personality	An individual’s unique set of characteristics and tendencies which shape a sense of self, and what that person does and the behaviour they exhibit.